SENTENCE - simple vs. complex

A sentence is made up of at least one subject and at least one verb idea to give a compete idea (known as a clause). The verb must be conjugated to agree with the subject for this idea to be complete.

e.g. SHAKESPEARE WAS A PLAYWRIGHT.
- "Shakespeare" is the subject.
- "was" is the verb (conjugated to agree with the subject)

SIMPLE SENTENCES

Simple sentences are made up of just one clause (verb idea), that is, although there may be more than one subject, there is only one clause.

e.g. IT MUST HAVE BEEN WINDY LAST NIGHT.
- There is one subject “It” and one verb idea “must have been”.
- Although there are three elements to make the verb "must have been", it is still only one clause (verb idea).
- If a sentence has more than one clause, it is not a simple sentence.

e.g. BOTH BONDI AND SURFERS PARADISE HAVE BEEN MARKETED AS THE MOST BEAUTIFUL BEACHES IN AUSTRALIA.
- There are two subjects “Bondi” and “Surfers Paradise”, but only one verb idea “have been marketed”.
- Again, despite all the elements used to make the subjects and the verb idea, it is still only one clause.
- It is a simple sentence.

e.g. JOHN HAS NEVER SEEN THE NORTHERN LIGHTS AND HAS NEVER BEEN IN AN AIRPLANE.
- As there are two clauses, this CANNOT be classified as a simple sentence.
- "has never seen" is a separate verb idea to "has never been".
- This is a compound sentence. For more information on compaound sentences, see link on COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

While a compound sentence (see link on COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) is the linking of two or more independent clauses, a complex sentence contains a main clause and at least one dependent clause.

Usually, independent clauses will take on the role of the main clause, whereas the dependent clauses may be adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, or even noun clauses (see link on NOUN CLAUSES).

e.g. ALTHOUGH SHE FLIES OF THE HANDLE QUITE OFTEN, SHE IS A GOOD-NATURED PERSON.
- “she is a good-natured person” is the independent clause (main clause).
- “Although she flies of the handle quite often” is the dependent clause (adverbial clause of contrast (concession)).
- “Although” is a subordinating conjunction of contrast.
- ANY SENTENCE WITH AT LEAST ONE DEPENDENT CLAUSE IS A COMPLEX SENTENCE.

e.g. CLARK KENT, WHO WAS SUPERMAN’S COVER-UP, HELD A JOB AS A JOURNALIST IN THE LOCAL NEWSPAPER.
- “Clark Kent held a job as a journalist in the local newspaper” is an independent clause (main clause).
- “who was Superman’s cover-up” is a dependent clause (adjective clause)
- “who” is a relative pronoun working as the subject of the dependent clause.

e.g. THAT DEMOCRACY IS NOT A PERFECT SYSTEM IS MADE CLEAR BY THE GROWTH IN POVERTY.
- “That democracy is not a perfect system is made clear by the growth in poverty” is the main clause.
- “That democracy is not a perfect system” is a dependent clause (noun clause) working as the subject of the main clause (for the verb “is”).
- “That” is a subordinating conjunction introducing the noun clause.

TRANSITIVE VERBS: MTV, DTV, CXTV

Transitive verbs require the presence of an object. They can be finite or non-finite.

e.g. JUGGLING THREE TENNIS BALLS AND A CHAINSAW, THE CLOWN IMPRESSED THE HUGE CROWD.
- "three tennis balls and a chainsaw" is the direct object of the verb "juggling"
- "the huge crowd" is the direct object of the verb "impressed"

MONOTRANSITIVE VERB (MTV)

The classification is very clear for this kind of verb, as it only requires a direct object. There may be more than one direct object, but no indirect object, nor an object complement.

e.g. I LOVE YOU.
- When you love, you love something or somebody (direct object). Without the direct object, the verb makes no sense.
- "you" is the direct object.

e.g. INVESTIGATORS FOUND THE EVIDENCE.
- When you find, you find something or somebody (direct object). Without the direct object, the verb makes no sense.
- "the evidence" is the direct object.

e.g. THEY ARE GOING TO SELL PIRATED COPIES OF THE CD AND SOME BOOTLEG DVDS.
- When you sell, you sell something (direct object). Without the direct object, the verb makes no sense.
- In this case there are two direct objects: "pirated copies of the CD" and "some bootleg DVDs".

DITRANSITIVE VERB (DTV)

While the classification of this kind of verb can be misleading (it sounds as if the prefix “di” denies the transitivity of the verb), a ditransitive verb is a transitive verb. However, it requires both a DIRECT and an INDIRECT object. There may be several objects, indirect and direct, but there must be at least ONE OF EACH.

e.g. THE HUMAN RESOURCES DEPARTMENT SENT ME AN INSURANCE POLICY.
- "me" is the indirect object.
- "an insurance policy" is the direct object.
- It would be strange to say "the human resources department sent me". The verb requires both objects.

e.g. SHE GAVE THE GIFT TO ME.
- "to me" is the indirect object (prepositional phrase working as an indirect object).
- "the gift" is the direct object.

e.g. THE LAWYER TOLD ME TO DROP THE CASE AND GET ON WITH MY LIFE.
- "me" is the indirect object.
- "to drop the case" is the direct object (non-finite noun clause reduced by infinitive working as the direct object). This is what the lawyer told me.
- "get on with my life" is another direct object (non-finite noun clause reduced by infinitive working as the direct object). This is another thing the lawyer told me.

COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB (CXTV)

Now my friends, we step into troubled waters. This is where I take you on a trip into a world of conflict, a world of discord, a world in which grammarians, young and old, will unsheathe their proVERBial swords and cut each other down, ripping each other’s throats out with their bare teeth. Yes, my friends ...prepare yourselves for the war of all wars…the battle of the COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB ...(dramatic music plays loudly)...

Traditionally, this kind of verb is a transitive verb that MUST have a direct object and CAN have an object complement.

e.g. THE JUDGE FOUND THE PLEA OUTRAGEOUS.
- "outrageous" is the object complement.
- "the plea" is the direct object
- Therefore, in this specific case, the verb "find" is considered a complex transitive verb (CXTV). This does NOT mean that "find" is always a complex transitive verb.
- In this case, the verb "find" requires the object complement.

e.g. THE NEWLY-WEDS PAINTED THE KIDS’ ROOM RED.
- "red" is the object complement.
- "the kids’ room" is the direct object.
- Therefore, in this specific case, the verb "paint" is considered a complex transitive verb (CXTV). This does NOT mean that "paint" is always a complex transitive verb.
- In this case, the verb "paint" does not require the object complement. However, if the object complement is removed, the verb becomes a monotransitive verb.

e.g. THE POOR WEATHER MADE US STAY HOME.
- "stay home" is the object complement (non-finite noun clause reduced by the bare infinitive).
- "us" is the direct object.
- Therefore, in this specific case, the verb "make" is considered a complex transitive verb. This does NOT mean that "make" is always a complex transitive verb.

ANOTHER WAY TO LOOK AT THINGS...

I find that there could be another possible way to look at the complex transitive verb. When the verb requires a direct object and an adverbial idea, it seems to me that it has a complex transitive feel. In fact, in the link to Syntax from Norway on my blog, there is a definition that refers to this kind of verb as a Ditransitive verb. Let’s see...

e.g. WONDER WOMAN SWEPT DOWN FROM THE SKY AND SAVED ME FROM THE EVIL DOERS.
- "save" requires a direct object because you must "save something or somebody".
The fact that you usually "save something or somebody FROM SOMETHING" makes me feel that this verb requires this extra information (from something).
In the link Syntax from Norway, the grammarians say that the prepositional phrase "from the evil doers" is an OBLIQUE object, and thus the verb is ditransitive (requiring direct and oblique objects). This is a fairly plausible argument.

But, now I put forth my opinion: as the prepositional phrase "from the evil doers" has an adverbial feel to it (an abstract idea of place, maybe - from where...), is it not possible to consider this a kind of complex transitive verb? That is, it requires a direct object, and the accompaniment works similar to an object complement or an oblique object. A verb that requires a direct object and an object complement is a complex transitive verb. Why not consider, then, a verb that requires a direct object and an adverbial idea a complex transitive verb. I feel that this is equally plausible.

SUMMARY: If a CXTV is a verb that requires a direct object and something else, then why can't this "something else" be an adverbial idea?

e.g. THE LIBRARIAN LED ME TO THE LITERATURE SECTION.
- "to the literature section" is an adverbial phrase of place.
- "me" is the direct object.
- I consider the verb "lead" a complex transitive verb because it demands the adverbial idea (in this case, of place).

Why study syntax?

I am sure most of my students ask themselves this during and after my syntax classes. To be honest, it is truly a valid question. I mean, if you think about it, all you get to know is a bunch of rules. But (there is always a "but"), I must, as a syntax teacher, comment on the plus that this bunch of rules has given to my writing.
By studying syntax, my writing has become more correct; my word order, more precise; my selection of structure, more well thought out. It is through knowing the basic syntax concepts that I have stopped writing like I speak (an unpunctuated flow of language, that, when on paper, is ambiguous and cumbersome to read). My punctuation now helps my readers rather than hindering them. While this may seem unimportant to most people, for those who are constantly putting pen to paper (or fingers to a keyboard), this is an essential tool that will change the way you view written communication.
There, I've said my bit....

WHAT IS A LINKING VERB?

These verbs link the subject to the subject complement. While the most common linking verb is "to be", other verbs can work as linking verbs (also known as copular verbs).
In order to check if a verb is a linking verb, merely substitute it with the verb "to be". If the sentence reads well, with no drastic change in the sense, the original verb is working as a linking verb.
In essence, the linking verb creates a "kind of descriptive tendency" for the subject complement. That is, the subject complement is "almost describing" the subject.

e.g. AFRICA IS A LARGE CONTINENT. (BE - linking verb)
- "Africa" (subject) is linked to "a large continent" (subject complement).
- "a large continent" describes "Africa"

e.g. BACKPACKING HAS BECOME LESS POPULAR. (BECOME - linking verb)
- "Backpacking is less popular" – "become" can be substituted with the verb "to be".
- "Backpacking" (subject) is linked to "less popular" (subject complement), which describes "Backpacking".

Other linking verbs, or copular verbs, are: to appear, to seem, to look (like), to sound (like), to feel, to taste (in the sense of having the taste of), to smell (in the sense of having the smell of) etc.

e.g. GODFREY SEEMS A LITTLE WORN OUT AFTER THE GAME. (SEEM - linking verb)
- "Godfrey is a little worn out" – "seem" can be substituted with the verb "to be".
- "Godfrey" (subject) is linked to "a little worn out" (subject complement), which describes "Godfrey".

NB: Linking verbs are not always followed by a subject complement. They can link the subject to an adverb.

e.g. THE BROKER WAS OUT. (BE - linking verb)
- "out" is an adverb. Adverbs cannot be subject complements.
- The subject is linked to an adverb by a linking verb. In this case, the linking verb acts in an "intransitive" manner. I am not saying that linking verbs are "intransitive", just that, when they link subjects to adverbs, it feels a little "intransitive".

STATIVE VS. DYNAMIC VERBS

Stative verbs refer to a state, static condition or unchanging situation, that is, the subject performs no action. These verbs are NOT usually used in the continuous (progressive) form or the passive voice. These verbs do not involve a process.

e.g. IBM HAS OFFICES ALL OVER THE WORLD.
- "to have", in the sense of "to possess" or "to own", is a stative verb.
- It would be wrong to say "IBM is having offices all over the world", as the act of possessing is not a process.

Most verbs of perception are stative.

e.g. MOST PEOPLE HATE WORKING ON THE WEEKENDS.
- In English, either "you hate something" or "you don’t". "To hate" is not a process.
- It would be wrong to say "Most people are hating working on the weekends."

e.g. THE SCHOOL OWNS THREE FARMS IN A NEIGHBORING CITY.
- In English, either "you own something" or "you don’t". "To own" is not a process.
- It would be wrong to say "The school is owning three farms in a neighboring city."

Other stative verbs include: to be, to contain, to know, to resemble, to see, to hear, to believe, to understand, to sound, to prefer, to doubt, to mean.

Dynamic verbs show actions that can start and finish, besides illustrating process. The subject does the action. Unlike stative verbs, dynamic verbs can be used in the continuous (progressive) form.

e.g. THOSE GRADUATE STUDENTS ARE LEARNING THE INS-AND-OUTS OF THE ELECTION PROCESS.
- The verb "to learn" is a dynamic verb as it shows a process being performed by the subject. "To learn" is a process that takes time.
- Stative verbs like "to understand" do not show a process. Either "you understand", or "you don’t".

e.g. WE ARE PUTTING TOGETHER A SCRAP BOOK WITH PHOTOS OF EVERYONE IN THE CLASS.
- The verb phrase "to put together" is a dynamic verb as it shows a process being performed by the subject. "To put something together" is a process that takes time.

Dynamic verbs can be used in the simple form, which does not make them stative. It just means that, in that specific case, they are not emphasizing continuity. The fact that they ARE ABLE TO BE used in the continuous form makes them dynamic.

e.g. CROP OWNERS BURN THE CANE FIELDS BEFORE HARVESTING.
- The verb "to burn" is a dynamic verb as it can show a process.
- It IS possible to say "Crop owners are burning the fields", thus proving "burn" is a dynamic verb.

SWome verbs are both stative and dynamic, which means they probably have slightly different meanings (although the verb seems to be the same).

e.g. WE HAVE BEEN THINKING ABOUT CHANGING THE DÉCOR IN THE LIVING ROOM.
- The verb "to think", in this case, is a dynamic verb as it shows the process of thinking, which may take some time.

However, "to think", in the sense of an opinion, is a stative verb.

e.g. WE THINK THEY HAVE MADE AN IRREPARABLE MISTAKE.
- Here, the verb "to think" does not show process, but rather an opinion in relation to something. The process of forming the opinion is over; therefore, "to think", in this case, is not a dynamic verb, but rather a stative idea.
- It would be wrong to say "We are thinking they have made an irreparable mistake."

Other verbs that can be both stative and dynamic (but with different meanings for each case) include: to have, to get, to find

WHAT IS A VERB?

The verb is the central element in a clause. A sentence cannot exist without a main verb (main clause). Every sentence has at least one main verb. Sometimes a single verb idea is constituted by more than one word. This is called a verb phrase.

e.g. BRAZIL WON THE 1994 WORLD CUP (WON is the main verb).

e.g. AUSTRALIA WAS DISCOVERED BY ENGLISH NAVIGATORS (WAS DISCOVERED is the main verb – verb phrase).

e.g. MOVING STEALTHILY ACROSS THE ROOM, THE BURGLAR TOOK ALL THE VALUABLES.
- There are two verbs ("MOVING" and "TOOK") This is not a verb phrase.
- "took" is the main verb because it is finite and part of an independent clause.

e.g. THE PRINTER THEY BOUGHT WAS EXPENSIVE.
- "bought" is a verb, and "was" is a verb.
- As there are two different verb ideas, this cannot be considered a verb phrase.
- "was" is the main verb because it is finite and part of an independent clause.
- "they bought" is a finite restrictive adjective clause (dependent clause)

e.g. SHE MUSTN’T HAVE BEEN THINKING WHEN SHE TURNED LEFT WITHOUT CHECKING FOR ONCOMING TRAFFIC.
- There are two verb ideas.
- "mustn’t have been thinking" is the main verb because it is finite and part of an independent clause. As it has several words that constitute one verb idea it is a verb phrase.
- "turned" is a finite verb (it has a subject and a tense), but it is not the main verb because it is part of a dependent clause (adverbial clause of time).

WHAT IS A SUBJECT?

The subject, in English, usually comes before (to the left of) the verb. The subject and the verb agree in person (1st, 2nd or 3rd) and number (singular or plural). A subject can be a pronoun, noun, noun phrase or noun clause.

e.g. HE DOESN’T SUSPECT A THING.
- The pronoun "He" is in the 3rd person singular. The verb phrase doesn’t suspect agrees in person and number.

Sometimes, the subject is not a pronoun, but rather a noun phrase.

e.g. TWO PAGES OF PRECISE INFORMATION ARE BETTER THAN 300 PAGES OF INACCURATE NONSENSE.
- The noun phrase "Two pages of precise information" is in the 3rd person plural. The verb are agrees in person and number.
- By substituting a noun phrase with the word "this/these", it is easy to verify if it can work as a subject (These are better than 300 pages of inaccurate nonsense.).

Sometimes there is a verb inside the subject. In this case, the subject is known as a noun clause. A way to make sure of the subject is to find the main verb of the sentence.

e.g. THROWING A PARTY IS MORE WORK THAN YOU THINK.
- The noun clause "Throwing a party" is the subject. It is the 3rd person singular. The main verb is agrees in person and number. It is a non-finite noun clause reduced by the gerund.
- By substituting a noun clause with the word "this/these", it is easy to verify if it can work as a subject (This is more work than you think).
- "Throwing a party" may also be seen as a gerund being used as a noun.

A subject can be compound.

e.g. THE SHEER SIZE OF THE ANIMAL AND THE WAY IT MOVES MAKE IT DIFFICULT TO KEEP IN CONFINED PLACES.
- "The sheer size of the animal" and "the way it moves" are coordinated (linked) by the coordinating conjunction "and".
- "The sheer size of the animal" contains no verb; therefore, it is a phrase. It can be substituted with the word "this", proving it is a noun phrase.
- "The way it moves" has a verb, but the part with the verb is a subordinate clause to the noun phrase "the way"; It could be written "The way (that) it moves". "(That) it moves" is subordinate to the noun phrase "the way", the nucleus.
- In this sentence, we see two noun phrases linked by a coordinating conjunction, resulting in a compound subject.
- The compound subject is in the 3rd person plural. The verb "make" agrees in person and number.
- By substituting the nouns phrases with the word "this/these" (that/those), it is easy to verify if the verb is conjugated correctly (This and that make it difficult to keep in confined places).

Sometimes the subject can come after the verb. This is rare and usually happens in direct speech.

e.g. “I WANT TO GET AWAY, I WANT TO FLY AWAY,” SANG LENNY.
- "Lenny" is the subject (Lenny sang “this”).
- As the direct object "I want to get away, I want to fly away" is inverted (fronted), the subject is consequently placed after the verb.
- "I want to get away, I want to fly away" are two finite noun clauses working as the direct object(s) of the monotransitive verb "sing".

NOUN CLAUSE

As a clause must have a verb, noun clauses are a group of words with a verb that represent, or can be substituted by, a simple noun (for example, this/these). That is, the clause has the function of a noun. Noun clauses (nominal clauses) can be finite or non-finite and are always dependent clauses (subordinate).

e.g. THAT THE SUPERBOWL IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS IN AMERICAN SPORTS CANNOT BE DISPUTED.
- "That the Superbowl is one of the most important events in American sports" is the subject. As it contains a verb (is), it is a clause, however, it is not the main clause.
- This group of words represents a noun. It can be substituted with the noun "this" (this cannot be disputed).
- As the noun clause has a subject (the Superbowl) and the verb is conjugated (is), it is classified as a finite noun clause.
- As this noun clause makes no sense by itself, it is dependent (subordinate).

e.g. TO UNDERSTAND DEMOCRACY REQUIRES IN-DEPTH STUDY OF ALL POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES.
- "To understand democracy" is the subject. As it contains a verb (to understand), it is a clause, however, it is not the main clause.
- This group of words represents a noun. It can be substituted with the noun "this" (this requires in-depth study of all political ideologies).
- As the noun clause has no subject and the verb is not conjugated (to understand - infinitive), it is classified as a non-finite noun clause reduced by the infinitive.

e.g. HIGH TAXES MAKE SELLING PROPERTY DIFFICULT AT THIS MOMENT.
- "selling property" is a direct object. As it contains a verb (selling), it is a clause, however, it is not the main clause.
- This group of words represents a noun. It can be substituted with the noun "this" (High taxes make this difficult at this moment).
- As the noun clause has no subject and the verb is not conjugated (selling - gerund), it is classified as a non-finite noun clause reduced by the gerund.

e.g. WHAT I FOUND MOST DELIGHTFUL AT THE VINEYARDS WAS EXPERIMENTING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WINE.
- "experimenting the different types of wine" is the subject complement. As it has a verb (experimenting), it is a clause, however, it is not the main clause.
- This group of words represents a noun. It can be substituted with the noun "this" (What I found most delightful at the vineyards was this).
- As the noun clause has no subject and the verb is not conjugated (experimenting - gerund), it is classified as a non-finite noun clause reduced by the gerund.

e.g. THEY SWORE TO SETTLE THE SCORE. THEY SWORE (THAT) THEY WOULD SETTLE THE SCORE.
- In the first example, "to settle the score" is the direct object. As it contains a verb (to settle), it is a clause, however, it is not the main clause.
- This group of words represents a noun. It can be substituted with the noun "this" (They swore this).
- As the noun clause has no subject and the verb is not conjugated (to settle - infinitive), it is classified as a non-finite noun clause reduced by the infinitive.
- In the second example, "(that) they would settle the score" is the direct object (finite noun clause).

NOUN PHRASE

It is very common for nouns to have supporting elements, such as determiners and/or premodifiers (adjectives) and/or postmodifiers (adjectives, adjective phrases or adjective clauses). When this occurs, the group of words is known as a noun phrase.

e.g. THREE INTRIGUING FELLOWS SWEET-TALKED THE MANAGER INTO A FREE LUNCH.
- "Three intriguing fellows" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "three", a premodifier "intriguing" and a noun "fellows'. The noun "fellows" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase. See below:

Three intriguing fellows = noun phrase

Three (determiner); intriguing (adjective - premodifier); fellows (nucleus)

- "the manager" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "the" and a noun "manager". The noun "manager" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase.
- "a free lunch" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "a", a premodifier "free" and a noun "lunch'. The noun "lunch" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase.

e.g. THE TRUNK OF THE CAR WAS DESTROYED IN THE CRASH.
- "The trunk of the car" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "the", a noun "trunk" and a postmodifier "of the car" (prepositional phrase working as and adjective phrase). The noun "trunk" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase.
- "the crash" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "the" and a noun "crash". The noun "crash" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase.

e.g. SOMEBODY CLEVER, QUICK AND ON THE BALL MUST HAVE SNEAKED INTO THE ROOM OVERNIGHT.
- "Somebody clever, quick and on the ball" is a noun phrase made up of a noun "somebody" and the postmodifiers "clever", "quick" and "on the ball". The noun "somebody" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase.

e.g. THE BOOKSHELVES (THAT) WE INSTALLED YESTERDAY FELL DOWN.
- "The bookshelves (that) we installed yesterday" is a noun phrase made up of a determiner "the", a noun "bookshelves" and an adjective clause "(that) we installed yesterday". The noun "bookshelves" is the nucleus (head) of the phrase. See below:

The bookshelves (that) we installed yesterday = noun phrase

The (determiner); bookshelves (nucleus); (that) we installed yesterday (adjective clause)

NB: The adjective clause "(that) we installed yesterday" is not the nucleus of the subject because it is dependent (subordinate) to the noun phrase "The bookshelves".

Welcome fellow syntax loonies...

I am totally html inept, but will do my best to keep this blog supplied with plenty of syntax junk. The main aim here is to help my students (my future colleagues, in fact) come to grips with the syntax of English, even if they can't stand it.